Liquid fluoride thorium reactor.Reaktor 6 building in core free

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Natural uranium consists of a mix of mostly uranium with small amounts of uranium and trace amounts of other isotopes. Fission in these elements releases high-energy neutrons , which can cause other U atoms in the fuel to undergo fission as well. This process is much more effective when the neutron energies are much lower than what the reactions release naturally. Most reactors use some form of neutron moderator to lower the energy of the neutrons, or ” thermalize ” them, which makes the reaction more efficient.

The energy lost by the neutrons during this moderation process heats the moderator, and this heat is extracted for power. Most commercial reactor designs use normal water as the moderator. Water absorbs some of the neutrons, enough that it is not possible to keep the reaction going in natural uranium.

CANDU replaces this “light” water with heavy water. Heavy water’s extra neutron decreases its ability to absorb excess neutrons, resulting in a better neutron economy.

This allows CANDU to run on unenriched natural uranium , or uranium mixed with a wide variety of other materials such as plutonium and thorium. This was a major goal of the CANDU design; by operating on natural uranium the cost of enrichment is removed.

This also presents an advantage in nuclear proliferation terms, as there is no need for enrichment facilities, which might also be used for weapons. In conventional light-water reactor LWR designs, the entire fissile core is placed in a large pressure vessel. The amount of heat that can be removed by a unit of a coolant is a function of the temperature; by pressurizing the core, the water can be heated to much greater temperatures before boiling , thereby removing more heat and allowing the core to be smaller and more efficient.

Building a pressure vessel of the required size is a significant challenge, and at the time of the CANDU’s design, Canada’s heavy industry lacked the requisite experience and capability to cast and machine reactor pressure vessels of the required size.

This problem is amplified by natural uranium fuel’s lower fissile density, which requires a larger reactor core. This issue was so major that even the relatively small pressure vessel originally intended for use in the NPD prior to its mid-construction redesign could not be fabricated domestically and had to be manufactured in Scotland instead. Domestic development of the technology required to produce pressure vessels of the size required for commercial-scale heavy water moderated power reactors was thought to be very unlikely.

The bundles are contained in pressure tubes within a larger vessel containing additional heavy water acting purely as a moderator. This larger vessel, known as a calandria, is not pressurized and remains at much lower temperatures, making it much easier to fabricate.

In order to prevent the heat from the pressure tubes from leaking into the surrounding moderator, each pressure tube is enclosed in a calandria tube.

Carbon dioxide gas in the gap between the two tubes acts as an insulator. The moderator tank also acts as a large heat sink that provides an additional safety feature. In a conventional pressurized water reactor , refuelling the system requires to shut down the core and to open the pressure vessel.

This allows the CANDU system to be continually refuelled without shutting down, another major design goal. In modern systems, two robotic machines attach to the reactor faces and open the end caps of a pressure tube.

One machine pushes in the new fuel, whereby the depleted fuel is pushed out and collected at the other end. A significant operational advantage of online refuelling is that a failed or leaking fuel bundle can be removed from the core once it has been located, thus reducing the radiation levels in the primary cooling loop.

Each fuel bundle is a cylinder assembled from thin tubes filled with ceramic pellets of uranium oxide fuel fuel elements. In older designs, the bundle had 28 or 37 half-meter-long fuel elements with 12—13 such assemblies lying end-to-end in a pressure tube. The newer CANFLEX bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes so the power rating can be increased without melting the hottest fuel elements. It is about 10 centimetres 3. Natural uranium is a mix of isotopes , mainly uranium , with 0.

A reactor aims for a steady rate of fission over time, where the neutrons released by fission cause an equal number of fissions in other fissile atoms. This balance is referred to as criticality. The neutrons released in these reactions are fairly energetic and don’t readily react with get “captured” by the surrounding fissile material.

In order to improve this rate, they must have their energy moderated , ideally to the same energy as the fuel atoms themselves. As these neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the fuel, they are referred to as thermal neutrons. Since most of the fuel is usually U, most reactor designs are based on thin fuel rods separated by moderator, allowing the neutrons to travel in the moderator before entering the fuel again. More neutrons are released than are needed to maintain the chain reaction; when uranium absorbs just the excess, plutonium is created, which helps to make up for the depletion of uranium Eventually the build-up of fission products that are even more neutron-absorbing than U slows the reaction and calls for refuelling.

Light water makes an excellent moderator: the light hydrogen atoms are very close in mass to a neutron and can absorb a lot of energy in a single collision like a collision of two billiard balls. Light hydrogen is also fairly effective at absorbing neutrons, and there will be too few left over to react with the small amount of U in natural uranium, preventing criticality. In order to allow criticality, the fuel must be enriched , increasing the amount of U to a usable level.

Enrichment facilities are expensive to build and operate. This can be remedied if the fuel is supplied and reprocessed by an internationally approved supplier.

The main advantage of heavy-water moderator over light water is the reduced absorption of the neutrons that sustain the chain reaction, allowing a lower concentration of active atoms to the point of using unenriched natural uranium fuel.

Deuterium “heavy hydrogen” already has the extra neutron that light hydrogen would absorb, reducing the tendency to capture neutrons. Deuterium has twice the mass of a single neutron vs light hydrogen, which has about the same mass ; the mismatch means that more collisions are needed to moderate the neutrons, requiring a larger thickness of moderator between the fuel rods. This increases the size of the reactor core and the leakage of neutrons. It is also the practical reason for the calandria design, otherwise, a very large pressure vessel would be needed.

In CANDU most of the moderator is at lower temperatures than in other designs, reducing the spread of speeds and the overall speed of the moderator particles. This means that most of the neutrons will end up at a lower energy and be more likely to cause fission, so CANDU not only “burns” natural uranium, but it does so more effectively as well.

This is a major advantage of the heavy-water design; it not only requires less fuel, but as the fuel does not have to be enriched, it is much less expensive as well. A further unique feature of heavy-water moderation is the greater stability of the chain reaction. This is due to the relatively low binding energy of the deuterium nucleus 2. Both gammas produced directly by fission and by the decay of fission fragments have enough energy, and the half-lives of the fission fragments range from seconds to hours or even years.

The slow response of these gamma-generated neutrons delays the response of the reactor and gives the operators extra time in case of an emergency. Since gamma rays travel for meters through water, an increased rate of chain reaction in one part of the reactor will produce a response from the rest of the reactor, allowing various negative feedbacks to stabilize the reaction.

On the other hand, the fission neutrons are thoroughly slowed down before they reach another fuel rod, meaning that it takes neutrons a longer time to get from one part of the reactor to the other.

Thus if the chain reaction accelerates in one section of the reactor, the change will propagate itself only slowly to the rest of the core, giving time to respond in an emergency. The independence of the neutrons’ energies from the nuclear fuel used is what allows such fuel flexibility in a CANDU reactor, since every fuel bundle will experience the same environment and affect its neighbors in the same way, whether the fissile material is uranium, uranium or plutonium. Canada developed the heavy-water-moderated design in the post— World War II era to explore nuclear energy while lacking access to enrichment facilities.

War-era enrichment systems were extremely expensive to build and operate, whereas the heavy water solution allowed the use of natural uranium in the experimental ZEEP reactor.

A much less expensive enrichment system was developed, but the United States classified work on the cheaper gas centrifuge process. Some of these are a side effect of the physical layout of the system. CANDU designs have a positive void coefficient , as well as a small power coefficient, normally considered bad in reactor design. This implies that steam generated in the coolant will increase the reaction rate, which in turn would generate more steam. This is one of the many reasons for the cooler mass of moderator in the calandria, as even a serious steam incident in the core would not have a major impact on the overall moderation cycle.

Only if the moderator itself starts to boil, would there be any significant effect, and the large thermal mass ensures that this will occur slowly. The deliberately “sluggish” response of the fission process in CANDU allows controllers more time to diagnose and deal with problems. The fuel channels can only maintain criticality if they are mechanically sound. Energy Conversion and Management. June Mechanical Engineering. Retrieved 24 October Idaho National Laboratory.

Archived from the original PDF on 8 August Retrieved 4 May Enel Green Power. Archived from the original PDF on 29 October Retrieved 7 April S2CID Archived from the original PDF on 22 January Archived from the original PDF on 15 May Bibcode : EnST PMID Progress in Nuclear Energy.

Archived from the original PDF on 19 January Archived from the original PDF on 26 September Archived from the original PDF on 21 October Conceptual design characteristics of a denatured molten-salt reactor with once-through fueling PDF. Archived from the original PDF on 14 January Retrieved 22 November Retrieved 3 August Retrieved 26 January March—April Europhysics News.

Bibcode : ENews.. Archived from the original PDF on 5 April Retrieved on 24 April Archived from the original PDF on 26 April Archived from the original PDF on 11 August Flibe Energy. Archived from the original on 28 June Platinum Metals Review. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 27 October University of Chicago. World Nuclear. Archived from the original PDF on 1 January Archived from the original PDF on 6 August Archived from the original PDF on 29 June Retrieved 6 June Seoul, Korea.

Retrieved 31 August Retrieved 16 October LAB NE Committee on Remediation of Buried and Tank Wastes. Molten Salt Panel Evaluation of the U. Department of Energy’s alternatives for the removal and disposition of molten salt reactor experiment fluoride salts. National Academies Press. Boston, Massachusetts: Materials Research Society. Nuclear Engineering and Technology. International Thorium Energy Organisation.

Archived from the original on 27 July Wired Science. Archived from the original on 17 July The Guardian. Weinberg Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 April Retrieved 17 April The Daily Telegraph. Next Big Future. Retrieved 27 June Bibcode : Natur. Archived from the original on 6 April Archived from the original on 10 March Retrieved 10 March Types of nuclear fission reactor. Graphite by coolant.

None fast-neutron. Nuclear fusion reactors List of nuclear reactors Nuclear technology Nuclear accidents. Archived from the original on 10 September Retrieved 9 August Archived from the original on March 10, Voitsekhovich; Mark J. Zheleznyak 3 June Chernobyl – What Have We Learned?

Archived from the original on 6 November Retrieved 1 January Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. Archived from the original on 26 June Nineteenth report of session documents considered by the Committee on 16 February , including the following recommendations for debate, reviewing the working time directive; global navigation satellite system; control of the Commission’s implementing powers; recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters, report, together with formal minutes.

The Stationery Office. Retrieved 31 January New York Daily press. Associated Press. February 13, Archived from the original on February 16, Retrieved February 15, New Zealand Herald. February 14, Archived from the original on April 13, The Engineer. Mark Allen Engineering Ltd. Archived from the original on 21 February Retrieved 8 March Archived from the original on January 26, European Bank. April 8, Retrieved April 22, World Nuclear News. March 28, Archived from the original on April 12, Retrieved April 2, Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chernobyl power plant.

Chernobyl disaster. Nuclear power in Ukraine. Energy in Ukraine Nuclear power List of power stations in Ukraine. Crimean Chyhyryn Odesa Kharkiv. Energoatom Turboatom. History of the anti-nuclear movement Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents Nuclear power debate Nuclear weapons debate Environmental movement Anti-nuclear protests List of nuclear reactors Nuclear power phase-out. Authority control. Categories : establishments in Ukraine Chernobyl disaster Chernobyl Exclusion Zone Nuclear power stations built in the Soviet Union Nuclear power stations using RBMK reactors Photovoltaic power stations in Ukraine Buildings and structures in Pripyat Buildings and structures completed in Energy infrastructure completed in Former nuclear power stations in Ukraine.

Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read View source View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version.

Retrieved 13 December The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 December Retrieved 12 March Retrieved 4 June Retrieved 7 March Physicians for Social Responsibility. Archived from the original on 28 July Archived from the original on 13 June Retrieved 21 February Archived from the original on 13 February Retrieved 14 December Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority. Retrieved 22 December Archived from the original on 18 January Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment Finland.

Retrieved 2 September Retrieved 24 January Berlin, Germany. Retrieved 1 November Munich, Germany. Retrieved 9 October Retrieved 11 February Retrieved 15 June Retrieved 25 February Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment. Retrieved 18 June Yle Uutiset. Archived from the original on 26 March Retrieved 26 March Retrieved 23 August Categories : Nuclear power stations in Finland Radioactive waste repositories Nuclear power stations using boiling water reactors Nuclear power stations using pressurized water reactors Nuclear power stations with reactors under construction Nuclear power stations with proposed reactors Nuclear power stations using EPR reactors Eurajoki Buildings and structures in Satakunta.

Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Wikimedia Commons. Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant in Eurajoki , Region of Satakunta. Gulf of Bothnia. Olkiluoto nuclear power plant. Related media on Commons. TVO applies to the Finnish cabinet for a decision-in-principle on the new unit [65]. Siemens withdraws from the joint venture with Areva, leaving the latter as the main contractor [66].

 
 

 

Nuclear meltdown – Wikipedia.REAKTOR 5 DOCUMENTATION

 

Rewktor liquid fluoride thorium reactor LFTR ; often pronounced lifter is a type of molten salt reactor. Buikding use the thorium fuel cycle with a fluoride -based, molten, liquid salt for fuel. In a typical design, the liquid is reaktor 6 building in core free between a critical core and an external heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to a nonradioactive secondary salt. The secondary salt then transfers its heat to a steam turbine or closed-cycle gas turbine.

Molten-salt-fueled reactors MSRs supply the nuclear fuel mixed into a molten адрес. They should not be confused with designs that use a molten salt for cooling only fluoride high-temperature reactors, FHRs and still have a solid fuel. LFTRs are defined by the use of fluoride fuel salts and the breeding of thorium into uranium in the thermal neutron spectrum. The LFTR has recently been the subject of a renewed interest worldwide.

LFTRs differ from other power reactors in almost every aspect: they use thorium that is turned into uranium, instead of using uranium directly; they are refueled by feee without shutdown. These distinctive characteristics give rise to many potential advantages, as well as design challenges. By reaktor 6 building in core free, eight years after the discovery of nuclear fissionthree fissile isotopes had been publicly identified for use as nuclear fuel : [6] [7].

Th, U and U are primordial nuclideshaving existed in their current form for over 4. For technical and historical [11] reasons, the three are узнать больше associated with different reactor types. U is the world’s primary nuclear fuel and is usually used in light water reactors. Alvin M. At ORNL, two prototype molten salt cpre were successfully designed, constructed and operated.

Both test reactors used liquid fluoride fuel salts. In a nuclear power reactorthere are two types free fuel. The first is fissile material, which splits when hit by neutronsreleasing a large amount of energy and also reaktor 6 building in core free two or three new neutrons.

These can split more fissile material, resulting in a continued reaktor 6 building in core free buillding. Examples of fissile fuels buildinf U, U and Pu The second type of fuel is called fertile. Examples of fertile fuel are Th mined thorium and U mined uranium. In corr to become fissile these nuclides must first absorb a neutron that’s been produced in the process of fission, to become Th and U respectively. After two sequential beta decaysbuildinf transmute into fissile isotopes U and Pu respectively.

This process is called breeding. All reactors breed some fuel this way, [17] but today’s solid fueled thermal reactors don’t breed enough new fuel from the reakror to make up for the amount of fissile they consume. This is because today’s reactors use the mined uranium-plutonium cycle in a moderated neutron spectrum.

Such a fuel cycle, using slowed down neutrons, gives back less than 2 new neutrons from fissioning the bred plutonium. Since 1 neutron is required to sustain the fission reaction, this leaves a budget of less than 1 neutron biulding fission to breed new fuel. In addition, the materials in the core such as metals, moderators and fission products absorb some neutrons, leaving too few neutrons to breed enough fuel to continue operating the reactor.

As a consequence they must add new fissile fuel periodically and swap out some of the old читать to make room for the new fuel. In a reactor that breeds at least as much new fuel as it consumes, it is not necessary to add new fissile fuel.

Only new fertile fuel frde added, which rwaktor to fissile inside the reactor. In addition the fission products need to be removed. This type of reactor is called a breeder reactor. If it breeds just as much new fissile from fertile to keep operating indefinitely, it is called a break-even breeder or isobreeder.

A LFTR is usually designed as a breeder reactor: reaktor 6 building in core free goes in, fission products come out. Reactors that use the uranium-plutonium fuel cycle require reaktor 6 building in core free reactors to sustain breeding, because only with fast moving neutrons does the fission process provide more than смотрите подробнее neutrons per fission. With thorium, it is possible to breed using a thermal reactor. This was reaktor 6 building in core free to work in the Shippingport Atomic Power Stationwhose final fuel load bred slightly more fissile from thorium than it consumed, despite being a fairly standard light water reactor.

Thermal reactors require less of the expensive fissile fuel to start, but are more sensitive to fission products left in the core. There are two ways to configure a breeder reactor to do the required breeding. One can place the fertile and fissile fuel together, so breeding and splitting occurs in the same place.

Alternatively, fissile and fertile can be separated. The latter is known as core-and-blanket, because a fissile core produces the heat and neutrons while a separate blanket does all the breeding. Oak Ridge investigated both ways to make a breeder for their molten salt breeder reactor.

Because the fuel is liquid, they are called the “single fluid” and “two fluid” thorium thermal breeder molten reaktor 6 building in core free reactors.

The one-fluid design includes a large reactor vessel filled with fluoride salt containing thorium and uranium. Graphite rods immersed in the salt function as reaktor 6 building in core free moderator and to guide the flow of salt. In the ORNL MSBR molten salt breeder reactor design [18] a reduced amount of graphite near the edge of the reactor core would make the outer region under-moderated, and increased the capture of neutrons there by the thorium.

With this arrangement, most of the neutrons were generated at some distance from the reactor boundary, and reduced the neutron leakage to an acceptable level. In a breeder configuration, extensive fuel processing was specified to remove fission products from the fuel salt.

The MSRE was a core region only prototype reactor. According to estimates of Japanese scientists, a single fluid LFTR program could be achieved through a relatively modest investment of roughly — million dollars over 5—10 years to fund research to fill minor technical gaps and build a small reactor prototype comparable to the MSRE.

The two-fluid design is mechanically more complicated than the “single fluid” reactor design. The “two fluid” reactor has a high-neutron-density core that burns uranium from the thorium fuel cycle.

A separate blanket of thorium salt absorbs neutrons and slowly converts its thorium to protactinium Protactinium can be left in the blanket region where neutron flux is lower, so that buuilding slowly decays to U fissile fuel, [23] rather than capture neutrons.

This bred fissile U can be recovered by injecting additional fluorine to create uranium hexafluoride, a gas which can be captured as it comes out of solution. Once reduced again to uranium tetrafluoride, a solid, it can be mixed into the core salt medium to fission. The core’s salt is also reaktor 6 building in core free, first by fluorination to remove uranium, then vacuum distillation to remove and reuse the carrier salts.

The still bottoms left after the distillation are the fission products waste of a LFTR. One weakness of the two-fluid design is the necessity of periodically replacing the core-blanket barrier due to fast neutron damage. The effect of neutron radiation on graphite is to reakror shrink and then swell it, causing an increase in porosity and a deterioration in physical properties.

Another weakness of the two-fluid design is its complex plumbing. ORNL thought a complex interleaving of core and blanket tubes was necessary to achieve a high power level 66 acceptably low power density. However, more recent research has questioned the need for ORNL’s complex interleaving graphite tubing, 10 download pc orbsmart pro pro mini pc windows free desktop aw-10 4k a simple elongated tube-in-shell reactor that buliding allow high power output without complex tubing, accommodate thermal expansion, and permit tube replacement.

A two fluid reactor that has thorium in the fuel salt is sometimes called a “one and a reaktor 6 building in core free fluid” reactor, or 1. Like the 1 нажмите чтобы перейти reactor, it has thorium in the fuel salt, which reaktlr the fuel processing. And yet, like the 2 fluid reactor, it reaktor 6 building in core free use a highly effective separate blanket to absorb neutrons that leak from the core.

The added disadvantage of keeping the fluids separate using a barrier remains, but with thorium present in the reaktor 6 building in core free salt there are fewer neutrons that must pass through this barrier into the blanket fluid. This results in less damage to the barrier.

Any leak in the barrier would also be of lower consequence, as the processing system must already deal with thorium in the core. The main design question when deciding between a one and a half or two fluid LFTR is whether a more complicated reprocessing or a more demanding structural barrier will be easier to solve. In addition to electricity generationconcentrated thermal energy from the high-temperature LFTR can be used as high-grade industrial process heat for many uses, such reaktor 6 building in core free ammonia production with the Ссылка process or thermal Hydrogen production by water splitting, eliminating the efficiency loss of first converting to electricity.

The Rankine cycle is the most basic thermodynamic power cycle. The simplest cycle consists of a steam generatora turbine, читать статью condenser, and a pump. The working fluid is usually water. A Rankine power conversion system coupled to a LFTR could take advantage of increased steam temperature to improve its thermal efficiency.

The Brayton cycle generator has a much smaller footprint than the Rankine cycle, lower cost and higher thermal efficiency, but requires higher operating temperatures.

It is therefore particularly suitable for use with a LFTR. The working gas can be helium, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide. The low-pressure warm gas is cooled in an ambient cooler. The low-pressure cold gas is compressed to the high-pressure of the system.

The high-pressure working gas is expanded in a turbine to produce power. Often the turbine and the compressor are mechanically connected through a single shaft. A Brayton cycle heat engine can operate at lower pressure with wider diameter piping. The LFTR needs a mechanism to remove the fission products from the fuel.

Fission products left in the reactor absorb neutrons and thus reduce neutron economy. This is especially important in the thorium fuel cycle with few spare neutrons and a thermal neutron spectrum, where absorption is strong.

The minimum requirement is to recover the valuable fissile material from used fuel. Removal of fission products is similar to reprocessing of solid fuel elements; by chemical or physical means, the valuable fissile fuel is separated from the waste fission products. Ideally the fertile fuel reaktor 6 building in core free or U and other http://replace.me/17113.txt components e.

However, for economic reasons they may also end up in the waste. On site processing is planned to work continuously, cleaning a small fraction of the salt every day and sending it back to the reactor.

There is no need to make the fuel salt very clean; the purpose is to keep the concentration of fission products and other impurities e. The concentrations of some of the rare earth elements must reaktor 6 building in core free especially kept low, as they have a large absorption cross section.

Some other elements with a small cross section like Cs or Zr may reakror over years of operation before they are removed.